B5 

1185 
T5 


uc-NfiVL 


43   001 


Osl 
O 


BH 

SSBraSG 


THESIS  FOR  THE  DOCTORATE 


OCR   AND   RICH    IN    THE   OLD    TESTAMENT 
WITH   A    STUDY   OF  npn>   IN  THE  BIBLE 
AND    RABBINICAL    LITERATURE. 


-BY- 


MAURICE  THORNER,  B.  A. 


.. 


NEW   YORK   UNIVERSITY 

GRADUATE    SCIIOOJ, 


POOR    AND    RICH    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

WITH    A    STUDY    OF   npny   IN  THE  BIBLE 

AND    RABBINICAL    LITERATURE. 


THESIS  FOR   THE  DOCTORATE 

Submitted  in   partial  fulfillment  of  the  requirements  for   the 

degree   of  Doctor  of   Philosophy    in   the   Graduate   School 
NEW  YORK    UNIVERSITY 

—BY- 
MAURICE  THORNER,   B.  A. 


1904. 


KARON    PRINTING   CO.,    2O   CM  AT  II  A  M  SQUARE,    NEW   YORK, 


ANALYTICAL  TABLE 
OF  CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

INTRODUCTORY,  : 1-2 

CHAPTER  I.  TERMINOLOGY  FOR  POOR  AND  RICH. 

1.  Terms  for  Poor. 
The  Poor-terms  S) 

'7|*1  '"UTlJ£  etymologically  and  psychologically  explained. 
They  depict,  first  the  physical,  then,  the  moral  aspect  of 
the  states  they  stand  for.  All  these  terms  are  suggest- 
ive of  physical  and  moral  suffering,  and  would  indi- 
cate punishment ....  3-8 

2.  Terms  for  Rich. 

The  Rich-terms  Tgty  ,#1tf  explained.— Terms  "for 
Riches  found  in  the  O.  T.  which  serve  to  further  illustrate 
the  Old  Testament  conception  of  Poor  and  Rich 9-10 

3.  Poor  and  Rich  in  the  Poverty  Literature  of  the  O.  T. 
Further  evolution  in  meaning  of  Poor-terms  and  Rich-terms 

shown  in  this  literature. — How  the  distinction  between 
Poor  and  Rich  found  in  this  literature  originated. — 
The  Anaz'im. — Poor  becomes  "Saint". — Rich  becomes 
"Wicked"  11-14 

CHAPTER  II.     BIBLICAL     CONCEPTION     OF     POVERTY 
AND  RICHES, 
i.     Poverty. 

Poverty  a  Punishment. — Its  ultimate  Cause  Unrighteousness. 
— A  distinction  in  this  cause. — Social  wrong  and  Indi- 
vidual wrong. — Natural  agencies  employed  to  effectuate 
the  Lord's  displeasure  at  Unrighteousness. — The  "in- 
nocent" Poor. — Poverty  in  the  Wisdom  Literature. — In- 
dividual sin  brings  poverty. — Anaristic  view  of  Poverty  15-18 


2.  Riches. 

Riches  a  blessing  of  the  Lord. — How  Righteousness  rewarded. 
— Collective  morality. — The  "Wise"  are  righteous. — Dis- 
tinction between  righteous  and  unrighteous  wealth. — 
The  former  not  condemned  in  the  Bible. — But  its  dangers 
pointed  out  18-21 

3.  Solution  of  the  Problem  of  Poverty. 

Not  an  economic  but  a  religious  solution  of  the  problem. — 
The  Pentateuch  and  the  Prophets  posit  righteousness  as 
the  cure  for  poverty. — Charity  a  remedial  agent. — 
Charity  as  a  right  of  the  poor. — Gleanings,  levitical  as- 
sessments, etc 21-23 

CHAPTER  in.  nj-ny  IN  THE  BIBLE  AND  RAB- 
BINICAL LITERATURE. 

The  social  equilibrium  restored  by  righteousness  (  HpT*iy  )• 
How  nrViy  becomes  charity. — The  implication  of 
charity  in  npH¥  in  various  passages  in  the  O.  T. — Its 
connection  with  mishpat  and  chesed. — How  the  relation 
of  God  to  the  category  of  poor,  "Stranger,"  "Orphan," 
"Widow,"  throws  light  on  the  evolution  of  Ts'dakah  into 
charity. — Further  illustration  from  the  institutions  of 
First-Fruits,  Tithes,  etc.  ^pT"!V  m  the  rabbinical 
literature. — Its  importance  as  the  highest  virtue. — Max- 
ims illustrating  this. — Ts'dakah  and  G'milnth  chesed.  .  .  24-31 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


Old  Testament  with  Jewish  Commentaries. 

Talmud— Tractates,  Succah,  Sotah,  BabaBathra,  Sabbath,  Sanhedrin. 

Mishnah — Tractate  Aboth   (Dicta  of  the  Fathers). 

Shtilchan  Aruch — Chapter  Hilkoth  Ts'dakah. 

Rahlfs,     *JJ£     and   U#       in  den  Psalmen,  1892. 

Lagarde,      *JJ£    Mitteilungen  I-IV. 

Driver,  Art.    "Poor"  in  Hasting's  Diet,  of  Bible. 

McClintock  &  Strong,  Bib.  Theol.  &  Eccles.  Ency.     Art.     "Poor" 

and  "Charity." 

Jewish  Ency.     Art.     "Charity." 

Jewish  Chronicle,  May  1884,  Art.     ''Charity,"  by  C.  G.  Montefiore. 

Isidore  Loeb,  La  Litterature  des  Pauvres  dans  la  Bible,  Paris,  1892. 

Graetz,  Kritischer  Comm.  zu  den  Psalmen,  Breslau  1880-82. 

Day,  The  Social  Life  of  the  Hebrews,  N.  Y.,  1901. 

Cone,  Poor  and  Rich  in  the  New  Testament,  N.  Y.,  1902. 

Renan,  Hist,  of  the  People  of  Israel,  London,  1891. 

Hamburger,  Real  Encyk.     Art.    "Almosen." 

Steinthal,  Allgemeine  Ethik.  , 


POOR  AND   RICH   IN  THE   OLD   TESTAMENT  WITH   A 

STUDY  OF     np/TSf     IN  THE  BIBLE  AND 

RABBINICAL  LITERATURE. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


A  study  of  Poor  and  Rich  in  the  Old  Testament  would  properly 
begin  with  an  examination  of  the  terminology  for  these  economic 
conditions.  A  psychological  consideration  of  these  words  will  reveal 
the  thought  of  the  people  that  employed  them,  and  in  the  evolu- 
tion of  meaning  through  which  they  passed,  from  their  original 
etymological  signification  to  the  figurative  sense  in  which  they  were 
later  used,  and  the  ethical  and  religious  connotation  they  received, 
more  especially  in  the  later  Psalms,  there  will  be  unfolded  to  us 
the  genesis  and  growth  of  the  Hebrew  conception  of  Poor  and  Rich. 
We  will  see  that  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  linguistic  and 
literary  growth,  and  conformably  to  the  tendency  of  the  Oriental 
mind  to  give  prominence  to  the  physical  expression  of  mental  and 
moral  states,  the  terms  for  Poor  and  Rich  will  originally  describe 
the  material  or  physical  aspect  of  the  objects  they  represent;  that, 
later,  their  derived  or  figurative  meanings  will  denote  moral  states, 
and  that,  finally,  reflecting  social  changes  and  the  evolution  of 
Hebrew  theology,  they  will  come  to  stand  for  new  conceptions — 
Poor  will  become  synonymous  with  pious,  good,  righteous ;  Rich 
with  wicked,  godless,  oppressive.  So  from  the  abundance  of  Hebrew 
terms  for  Poor,  each  picturing  a  distinct  nuance  of  the  conception  of 
physical  and  moral  suffering,  will  be  evidenced  the  fact,  even  if 
there  were  no  other  testimony  therefor,  that  the  Poor  were  objects 
of  great  concern  and  solicitude  to  the  founders  of  the  old  Hebrew 
commonwealth.  The  paucity  of  distinct  terms  for  the  conception  of 
wealth,  on  the  other  hand,  will  demonstrate  that  not  property,  but 
humanity,  especially  the  weaker  and  less  fortunate  part  thereof,  was 
the  chief  care  of  the  ancient  Hebrews. 


The  Biblical  conception  of  Poverty  and  Riches  will  be  found 
to  rest  on  a  religious  basis.  Economics  and  religion  will  be  insep- 
arably connected.  The  former  will,  originally,  be  considered  a 
penal  condition  which  must  be  suffered  for  one's  own  or  society's 
misdeeds  ;  the  latter,  with  its  concomitants  of  peace,  contentment 
and  happiness,  will  evidence  divine  favor,  the  reward  for  righteous 
conduct.  A  causal  relation  will  thus  be  established  between  Poverty 
and  wickedness,  and  Riches  and  righteousness.  Later,  in  the  so- 
called  "Literature  of  Poverty,"  we  will  note  a  great  change  in  this 
conception,  when  Poor  and  saint,  and  Rich  and  wicked  become 
interchangeable  terms. 

Righteousness,  the  watchword  of  the  Law  and  the  Prophets, 
will  be  found  to  be  the  Biblical  solution  of  the  problem  of  Poverty. 
When  individual  unrighteous  conduct  and  social  injustice  will  cease, 
poverty,-  a  resulting  condition  from  these,  will  also  cease.  An 
ever-growing  sympathy  for  the  unfortunate  and  those  that  suffer 
through  the  maladjustment  of  social  conditions  will  lead  to  the 
correction  of  civil  injustice.  Charity  will  be  posited  as  the  means 
of  restoring  the  social  and  moral  equilibrium  which  has  been  dis- 
turbed by  violence,  corruption  and  oppression.  Sympathy  for  the 
oppressed,  and  charity  for  the  unfortunate,  crystallized  in  the  Mosaic 
institutes,  will  become  the  constant  theme  of  the  Hebrew  prophets. 
To  do  charity  and  to  labor  for  civil  justice  will  be  the  meaning  of 
righteousness  (  H^V  )• 


H  p  *T  V  (originally  righteousness)  will  assume  the  sub- 
meanings  of  charity  and  justice.  In  later  Biblical  use  it  will  stand 
for  charity,  occasionally,  and  in  the  Rabbinical  literature  H  j!J  "T  V 
will  become  the  term,  par  excellence,  for  charity  (in  the  sense  of 

alms). 


—  3 


CHAPTER  I. 

TERMINOLOGY  FOR  POOR  AND  RICH, 
i.     TERMS  FOR  POOR. 

A.    '«? 

A  common  term  for  Poor  in  the  Old  Testament  is  *  )  %  • 
It  is  derived  from  the  root  Jl  J  y  (Arabic,  'ana  ),  meaning 
depressed,  bent,  oppressed,  afflicted  with  sorrow,  etc.  The  root- 
idea1  refers  to  the  faint,  broken,  exhausted  appearance  of  the  *  J  J£ 
the  poor  man.  He  is  bent,  weighed  down  under  his  burden  of 
care,  weakened  and  exhausted  by  want,  imprisoned  in  the  fetters 
of  poverty.  His  physical  suffering,  which  the  root-notion  describes, 
reacts  upon  his  spirits,  and  hence,  the  term  also  depicts  the  moral 
condition  of  the  poor  man,  his  humiliation  and  sorrow.  He  be- 
comes meek  and  humble,  and  falls  an  easy  prey  to  the  unrighteous2. 

B.   J1*3« 

Another  common  term  for  Poor  is  f1*3N  usually  found  together 
with  *JJ.8  It  comes  from  the  root  POK  (Ar.  'aba  ). 


1.  See  Lev.  xvi.  31,  and  Numb.  xxix.  7,       D 

referring  to  affliction  of  soul  on  Day  of  Atonement.  In  Mishnaic  use  V\%y 
means  castigation,  fasting.  In  Ps.  xxxv,  13,  and  elsewhere  H-IJ?  is  used  with 
JJJ¥  ,  Isai.  xlviii,  3,  5,  it  becomes  synonymous  with  Q'jy  ,  See  Ps.  cii,  24, 
where  it  means  extreme  physical  exhaustion,  synonymous  with  "cutting  off 
one's  days."'  Ps.  Ixxxviii,  15  syn.  with  yi$  ,  "ready  to  die."  Ps.  cv,  18, 
used  with  "fetters."  Comp.  Ar  ma'nuww ,  prisoner).  See  uses  of  ,1^ 
in  Gen.  xxxl,  42,  xv,  13,  Ex.  i,  11  Deut.  viii,  3,  xxii,  24,  29;  xxvi,  7,  Isai. 
Iviii,  10.  In  later  use  5  flty  like  Syriac  '*na  b*  means  to  weary  or 
trouble  oneself  about  anything. 

2.  Deut.  xxiv,  14.  15. 

3.  See  Deut.  xv,  n;  xxiv,  14;  Ps.  xl,  18 ;  Ixx,  6;  Ixxxvi,  i;  cix,  22,  etc. 


desirious,  demanding,  requesting,  then,  needy1.  The  |V3#  is  a 
pauper  who  desires  what  he  has  not.  He  is  a  "not-have."  The 
demanding,  begging  attitude  of  the  poor  is  expressed  by  this  term. 
The  f  1 *  3  N  is  one  who  stands  in  need  of  everything2,  whose 
necessitous  condition  calls  forth  charity.  "Beggar"  would  be  a 
good  translation  of  the  word,  if  we  use  the  term  in  a  passive  sense  as 
denoting  one  whose  condition  appears  to  beseech  others  for  help, 
rather  than  as  describing  an  institution3. 

The  *)%  and  the  fV3^  are  both  weak  in  an  economic  sense. 
They  both  mark  the  condition  of  the  poor,  but  a  distinction  may  be 
made  between  them,  in  that  the  former  describes  the  poor  man  as 
suffering  poignantly  the  deep  humiliation  of  his  poverty.  It  is  more 
broadly  characteristic  of  the  mental  and  moral  anguish  accompany- 
ing want.  The  ''  )  Jf.  feels  more  keenly  the  shame  that  attaches  to 
his  condition.  f  1  1  3  t<  on  the  other  hand,  stands  for  poor  man 
with  special  reference  to  his  want  of  the  necessaries  of  life.  The 
[  V  3  N  feels  hunger  gnawing  at  his  stomach ;  he  shivers  in  the 
cold.  To  the  '  J  J7  poverty  is  oppressive,  burdensome,  crushing; 
to  the  )  1  *  3  »S  it  spells  want,  emptiness. 


1.  HDX  means  to  be  willing,  to  be  obedient,  i.  e.,  to  desire  to  do;  to 
desire,  to  wish  for  intensely,  to  lust  after.     See  Deut.  xiii,  9;  Ps.  Ixxxi,  12; 
Prov.  i,  30  ,etc.     We  find  another  substantive,    H^Nf!  •     PS-  cxix,  20.    This 
is  probably  derived  from  a  secondary  form,  3XIH     Ps.  cxix,  40,  174. 

2.  Amos   ii,  6 ;   viii,   6,  where  the      ?V3N     is  sold  f°r  a  Pa'r  °f  shoes. 
Job  xxxi,   19,  where  he  perishes  for  want  of  covering.       I  Sam.  ii,  8,  where 
his  surroundings  are  compared  to  a  dung-hill. 

3.  There  was,  perhaps,  no  such  social  class  as  beggars  in  ancient  Israel. 
We  find  no  technical  term  for  them,  only  the  paraphrase     Q  PI    >  C*  p  DO 
Ps.  xxxvii,  25,  and    ?)  S  jtf  $     ?s-  cix<  !0,  used  with  J/  1  ^  to  wander  about. 
Both  instances  indicating,  no  doubt,  that  begging  was  a  spectacle  seldom  seen. 


c.  trx 

is  another  term  often  employed,  especially  in  Proverbs,  for 


Poor.  If  we  derive  t^*V  from  C^D  (related  to  £>£H),  meaning 
to  push,  drive,  etc.,  it  would  signify  the  restless,  driven,  hunted 
feeling  of  the  poor2.  He  is  driven  from  place  to  place,  impelled 
by  want.  Impulsion  from  within  or  without  is  here  expressed. 
The  poverty  of  the  tf'"}  drives  him  on,  leaves  him  no  rest,  per- 
turbs his  mind,  or,  objectively  considered,  society  seems  to  push  him 
away,  to  coerce  him  into  the  inferior  position  he  must  fill.  But  the 
word  may  be,  perhaps,  more  correctly,  derived  from  the  root  &**V 
with  apocopated  *  »  £H  would  then  mean  a  poor  man,  with  the 
subaudition  of  one  who  is  dispossessed  from  or  deprived  of  his 
rightful  share  of  earthly  goods. 

D.     S. 


From  the  root-notion4  (  ^7*  weak,  hovering,  slack,  flabby, 
lean),  S?  would  mark  the  weak,  unsettled,  defenseless  condi- 
tion of  the  poor,  in  contradistinction  to  V  i?  !?  (settled,  firm,  a 
term  used  in  later  Hebrew  for  a  man  of  substance).  They,  there- 
fore, become  an  easy  prey  to  the  unscrupulous,  and  an  available 
tool  in  the  hand  of  oppressors.  The  term  would  mark,  first,  the 
physical  appearance  of  the  poor,  they  are  weak,  lean,  emaciated, 
and  then  it  would  depict  instability  in  a  moral  sense. 


1.  {jn  is  the  participle.     The  form^'fr^is  also  found.  See  Prov.  x,  4,  etc. 

2.  In  Mai,  i,  4,  the  Pual    and  in  Jer.  v,  17,  the  Poal  have  the  meaning  of 
being  destroyed. 

3.  In  Kal,  Niphal,  Hiphil,  £>*V  has  the  privative  meaning  of  dispossess- 
ing, impoverishing  (continued  in  note  a,  next  page). 

4.  See  note  4  on  next  page. 


E.    T 


Tjp  a  participle  from  T]-1Q  which  means  depressed,  lowly, 
come  down,  is  another  term  employed  for  poor.  From  the  meaning 
of  the  related  roots1,  TjlO  would  describe  the  lowly,  shrunken. 
shriveled  appearance  of  the  poor,  both  physically  and  morally.  The 
term  marks  the  physical  appearance  of  poverty  more  especially.  It 
is  the  external  expression  of  poverty.  (Comp.  Deut.  xxviii,  43, 
where  verbs  descriptive  of  something-  ocular  are  employed  to  denote 
prosperity  and  poverty.) 

F.  ppn 

We  find  also  the  word  f  5  P  D  for  poor.  It  is  a  loan-word 
from  the  Assyrian,  found  in  Syriac,  Ethiopic,  Aramaic  and  Arabic. 
From  the  last  it  has  gone  over  into  the  Romance  tongues2.  In  the 
O.  T.  we  find  it  only  in  Eccl.  iv,  13  and  ix,  15,  and  a  substantive 
in  Deut.  viii,  9.  From  the  root  pD  (like  pu*  and 


a.     Judg.  xir,   15,     Gen.  xl,  11,     Prov.  xx,  13,   xxiii,  21,   xxx   9. 

In  Prov.  xxx,  9,  £*T  lias  definitely  the  meaning  of  becoming  poor.  If 
we  derive  £*1  from  £'"V,  the  term  may  then  intend  to  convey  the  notion, 
held  in  later  Israel  by  the  communistic  or  Anavistic  orders,  that  the  poor 
were  wrongfully  dispossessed  of  this  earth  (which  the  creator  had  given  to 
all  alike,  (Ps.  cxv,  16),  by  the  D*W^")  or  wicked  rich. 

4.  See  Isai.  xix,  6,  where  the  brooks  }  //"I  >  used  with  ^Q^lPl  • 
Ps.  Ixxix,  8,  cxvi,  6,  cxlii,  7,  where  it  means  to  be  weak,  impoverished.  Gen. 
xli,  17,  used  of  lean  cows;  Jug.  vi,  15,  where  it  means  weak,  insignificant 
2  Sam.  xiii,  4,  where  it  is  used  for  the  thin,  careworn  face  of  one  burning  with 
lust.  It  is  used  in  connection  with  fVJN  Ps.  Ixxi,  13,  Prov.  xiv,  31,  Isai, 
xxv.  4.  Amos  ii,  6,  viii,  6,  etc.  The  latter  Hebrew  forms  a  substantive, 
n  li>  "\  meaning  poverty.  See  n^T  2  K.  xxiv,  14,  Jer.  xl,  7. 

*•  JVJ  to  melt,  "p*,2  to  sink,  be  compressed  Ar.  inakka  to  suck  out. 
Comp.  Aramaic  7|*D^  afflicted,  humbled.  See  1  ev  xxv,  47,  xxvii,  8,  and 
xxv,  25,  35,  39. 

2.     It.  meschino,  Portuguese,  mesquinho,  Fr.  mesquin. 


Arabic  sakana)to  rest,  dwell,  or  being  compelled  to  inactivity,  comes 
the  derived  meaning  of  being"  in  want.  The  inactive,  passive  condi- 
tion of  the  poor  is  denoted  by  the  word.  There  may  have  been 
originally  the  subaudition  in  the  term,  that  idleness  produces  poverty 
on  the  one  hand,  or  on  the  other,  that  the  poor  are  cut  off  from  the 
avenues  of  activity  and  business  which  produces  wealth. 


T|  7  n  from  ?}  ?  n  to  walk,  used  in  2  Sam.  xii,  4,  in 
contradistinction  to  T^tf  is  considered  also  a  poor-term  by  the 
Jewish  commentators.  It  is  here  used  synonymously  with  n  1  X 
meaning  a  traveler  or  stranger.  It  may  not  be  too  fanciful  to  find  a 
modern  parallel  to  ?J  ?  n  in  the  English  word,  "tramp,"  a  term  de- 
scriptive of  the  vagrant  poor. 

H. 

is  found  only  in  Ps.  x,  8,  and  x,  14,  with  a  plural 
G?n  in  verse  10.  If  this  is  the  correct  reading  (and. not  1  /  ""  n 
"thy  host")  as  it  appears  to  be,  since  it  is  used  synonymously 
with  "*  j?  J  in  x,  8,  and  parallel  with  D  i  rn  ,  in  x,  14,  then  we 
have  here  another  term  for  poor.  It  would  come  from  a  root  7j  >  n 
(Arabic  halaka  dark,  bleak,  dreary,  sorrowful,  unhappy),  mark- 
ing the  hopelessness  of  poverty,  the  subjective  depression  of  the  poor 
which  reflects  itself  in  their  gloomy  countenance. 

i.    rp 

rn  from  the!  root  rp^  (n'ke  'rjn  ,nm  ,rCT  Ar.  dfo/£/£tf  )  to 
grind,  mash,  would  indicate  the  violence  that  the  poor  must  suffer 
at  the  hands  of  the  powerful.  In  Ps.  x,  18,  it  is  used  with  Q  -j  p 
in  Ps.  Ixxiv,  21,  as  a  synonym  of  ^  and  ]V2N. 


is  found  in  Ps.  cii,  18  and  Jer.  xvii,  61.  It  comes 
from  a  root  -PJJ;  (related  roots  ,mj/*  ,Diy  ,Diy  ,Tpy  ,TlJj) 
Ar.  'arra  which  means  to  be  scratched  off,  scabby,  then  uncovered, 
naked,  and  in  a  derived  sense,  lonely,  solitary,  deserted.  It  would 
indicate  the  deserted  state  of  the  poor.  (Prov.  xiv,  25,  gives 

expression  to  the    same  notioh/  that f  the  rich  have  many  friends, 

but  the  poor  arc'  solitary). 

:.       .         >j«jon  °-':  •"•••.    4T       • " 

>  ,.  —  IT  *>oH      p.i;         T.f-^l 

.         •       -,      •'  ,      •  \^'.~     vr»       >,     -     ,fTj( 

pM.:—r      pi  •"        •  •• 


-  -      .......    • 

.  ',    ^    ..-va 

rl        tr*'  "•»•     »'      *•  r'rp      <>;     '  <  ' 

r.          ..,.. 


-J.;  -vt    o,t      »r         -H;,-        ^^gc,      ?j.i     ?         nO?.        * 

»  .  ,         .  ,-     vf  -»f 


I.,,  Jer,  xvii,  6,..."iy."iy,/v.is  trawn5l^ted.i"sojita-ry,:>.  "helpless," ..by  some  com- 
mentators.   Others  translate  it  as  a  species  of  tree-.  •  S"ee-GiesebrechtV  "Das 
Buch  Jeremia,"  p.  98,-  <vhere   the  Various   authorities  a #e- collected, 
has  "also' the 'meaning 'of  "deserted"  in  Jer.  xlviii;  6. 


2.     TERMS  FOR  RICH. 
A. 


"Pt^y  from  the  root1  conveys  the  idea  of  fatness,  abundance, 
plenty.  It  may  be  contrasted  with  the  Poor-term  v*l  meaning 
lean,  wasted.  The  root-idea  marks  more  prominently  the  physical 
aspect  of  the  rich  man.  The  rich  are  fat,  well-fed  ;  they  shine  with 
prosperity.2  The  notion  of  fulness  and  abundance  which  "i  **  &  V 
conveys,  with  its  corollary  of  happiness,  power,  influence,  reflects 
the  early  conception  of  wealth  as  being  a  blessing  of  the  Lord.8 
This  is  the  most  generally  employed  term  for  Rich  in  the  Old 
Testament.  It  is,  perhaps,  the  only  distinct  term  therefor. 

B. 


The  meaning  of  JM  #  4  from  which  V  1  &  comes,  is  wide,  ex- 
tended, and  in  a  derived  sense,  to  be  in  a  fortunate  situation,  pleas- 
ant, to  be  noble,  eminent.  It  has  always  a  complimentary  connota- 
tion, whereas  TBty  is  often  used  to  mark  the  rich  man  as  one  who 
by  reason  of  his  easy,  affluent  position  is  liable  to  be  filled  with 
pride,  to  become  extravagant,  luxurious  and  then  oppressive.5 


i.  Heb.  "1  K>  y  Syr.  '*tar  much,  abundant ;  comp.  Ar.  'at Ha  much, 
plentiful.  iny  means,  transitively,  to  heap  up,  intrans.  to  be  rich  (Ezek., 
xxv,  13). 

2. Amos  iv,  i,  compares  the  rich  to  the  "kine  of  Bashan." 

3.  See  Prov.  x,  22;  viii,  18;  iii,  16;  In  Prov.  "Wisdom"  helps  a  man  to 
nches,  "Folly"  makes  him  and  keeps  him  poor.     TBty    is  probably  related  to 
"It^tf    lucky,  fortunate,  happy. 

4.  Related    to     y  &  "•     (comp.    Ar.  wast 'a  Con}.    VIII,    X)    spread    out, 
extended,    broad,    applied   to   being    rescued    from    straitness,    to    escape;    see 
H  y  1  K>  '        "salvation,"  "happiness,"  Job  xxx,   15;  "victory,"   i   Sam.   xiv,  45, 
and     PiyiETl     "victory,"  2  Sam.  xix.  3;  2  K    v,  i. 

5.  See    Prov.   xviii,   23;   xxii,   7;    Micah   vi,    12;   Isai,   liii,   9.     In   the   Ps. 
especially,  the  TPy  becomes  synonymous  with   y&h    "wicked." 


V  1  &  is  a  term  applied  to  the  liberal,  generous  and  noble  rich. 
In  Isai.  xxxii,  5,  it  is  used  in  a  parallel  sense  to  3^  *• 

i  '  &  y  and  V  1  V  are  the  only  distinct  terms  for  Rich  that  we 
find  in  the  Old  Testament. 

C. 

There  are,  however,  several  terms  for  riches  found  in  the  Old 
Testament  which,  from  their  etymological  and  derived  meanings, 
may  serve  to  further  illustrate  and  unfold  the  Old  Testament  con- 
ception of  Poor  and  Rich,  fin  from  root  V)n  Ar.  hana  easy, 

comfortable.  (Syriac  huna  used  of  intelligence  as  a  species  of 
spiritual  or  intellectual  wealth).  It  has  the  further  meaning  of 
sufficiency  (see  its  adverbial  meaning,  "enough,"  in  Prov.  xxx,  15, 
16).  It  may  be  compared  to  our  English  use  of  the  word  "com- 
petency," for  a  man's  wealth.  The  word  marks  the  external,  physi- 
cal, and  inner,  moral  condition  of  its  possessor  ;  the  ease  and  comfort 
it  brings  him.  In  Ps.  cxii,  3,  it  is  used  with  1  &V  as  a  reward  to 
the  God-fearing  man.  In  Prov.  vi,  31,  it  refers  to  the  booty  of 
the  thief. 

]1N  (root  jitf  to  exert  force,  to  weary  (Ar.  ana  ). 
It  means  power,  strength.  In  the  two  instances  (Hos.  xii,  9,  and 
Job,  xx,  10),  where  it  is  used  for  riches,  it  has  the  uncomplimentary 
connotation  of  ill-gotten.  When  so  used,  it  may  signify,  objectively, 
the  power,  force,  oppression,  employed  in  the  attainment  of  un- 
righteous wealth,  or  subjectively  considered,  the  suffering  caused 
to  the  despoiled.  There  is  the  subaudition  of  force,  power  and 
violence,  in  the  word,  reflecting  the  belief  that  there  is  something 
violent  in  the  origin  of  wealth,  or  referring  to  the  power  and  influ- 
ence the  wealthy  wield.  A  somewhat  similar  explanation  may  be 
given  of  the  use  of  S'n  for  wealth  (see  Deut.  viii,  17,  18).  ^f"i 

from     ^ij-;    (Ar.    hala  means  force,  strength,  vigor,  and  may  refer 

to  the  strength  required  to  acquire  wealth  through  working  the  soil, 
or  making  conquests  in  war,  or  securing  booty  by  robbery. 


i.  Here  the  2  s  "1  J  is  not  a  ^3  ;  he  is  free  from  deceit,  fraud;  he  is 
liberal  and  bountiful.  The  2H3  (from  T13  Ar.  nod  aba  move,  incite),  is 
one  who  is  easily  moved,  or  susce  >  i  le  to  noble  emotions  which  express 
themselves  in  his  liberality  and  kindness.  He  is  known  by  his  liberality  in 
giving  gifts  (Prov.  xix,  6).  Comp.  il  3  "13  Ex.  xxv,  2g,  "a  free-will  offer- 
ing." and  ?b  T"U  "liberal  of  heart."  2  Chron.  xxix,  31.  In  Job  xxxiv, 
19,  the  yV_M  is  put  in  the  same  category  with  "lb>  prince). 


—  I 


3.     POOR  AND  RlCH  IN  THE  SO-CALLED  POVERTY  LITERATURE  OF 
THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 

The  preceding  examination  of  the  terms  for  Poor  and  Rich 
showed  that  they  originally  described  the  physical  and  moral  aspect 
of  the  economic  conditions  to  which  they  refer.  We  saw  how  the 
moral  content  of  the  terms  was  derived  from  an  expansion  or 
evolution  of  the  physical  conception.  A  further  evolution  is  seen 
when  we  note  the  application  made  of  them  by  the  prophets  of 
Israel1,  but  more  especially,  in  the  later  Psalms,  which  have  been 
aptly  termed  the  "Literature  of  Poverty."2  In  these  Psalms3  the 
terms  for  Poor  and  Rich  receive  connotations  which  mark  a  new 
order  of  thought.  The  former  become  synonymous  with  the  highest 
ethical  and  religious  virtues,  while  the  latter  stand  for  "wicked,0 
"violent,"  "oppressive."  This  new  conception  of  poverty  and  riches 
had  its  origin  in  the  sharper  demarcation  of  the  social  classes  which 
began  with  the  reign  of  Solomon.4  With  this  king  there  was 
inaugurated  a  period  of  commercial  activity  which  brought  affluence 
to  some,  and  made,  sharper  the  distinction  between  poor  and  rich. 
They  began  to  be  separated  by  an  ever-widening  chasm.  Riches 
brought  luxury,  extravagance,  avarice,  vice.  Under  Jereboam  II, 
corruption,  robbery,  violence,  calls  forth  the  prophets'  denunciations. 
The  poor  were  the  conservators  of  morality  and  religion,  and  the 


1.  Amos  ii,  6,  where    pHV    and  jVDN    are  classed  together;  Isai,  xi,  4, 
where    J?Kn     stands  for  the  rich  oppressor;  Isai,  xiv,  30;  Zach,  ix,  9,  Micah, 
vi,  12;  Isai,  liii,  9,  etc. 

2.  Isidore  Loeb  —  La  Literature  des  Pauvres  dans  la  Bible,  Paris,   1892. 
3       See  especially  Ps.  ii,  iv,      x,  xxii,  xxvii,     xxx,  xxxi,  xxxv,     xxxvii, 

xxxviii,  xlii,  xlix,  Ixviii,  Ixix,  Ixxiii,  Ixxiv,  Ixxxviii,    cvii,   cix,  cxvi,    cxxiii, 
cxlvi. 


4.  J.  Benzinger  —  Hebraische  Archaologie,  Lei  zig,  1894,  PP-  174,  35O,  and 
W.  Nowach-Lehrbuch  der  Hebr.  Arch.  Leipzig,  1894,  Erster  Band,  p.  250. 
See  2  Sam.  viii,  14;  I  K.  ix,  26;  x,  22;  2  Chr.  viii,  17. 


1  2 

prophets  became  their  champions.1  The  prophets  based  their  politi- 
cal economy  on  their  theological  beliefs,  and  their  teachings  became 
the  tenets  of  their  disciples,  and  later  formed  the  platform  of  a 
distinct  party  or  school2  who  preached  the  gospel  of  poverty.3 
These  were  the  Anavlm  (from  } }  y  poor,  humble)  and  later  the 
Ebionim*  ( from  ]V2tf  poor).  The  authors  of  the  Psalms  which  make 
up  this  "Poverty"  literature  were  the  poets  of  the  party,  and  gave 
literary  expression  to  its  principles.  According  to  the  Anavistic 
belief,  the  poor  were  the  proteges  of  the  Lord.5.  They  obeyed  His 
commands,  kept  themselves  pure  and  holy,  and  were  ever  zealous 
in  the  cause  of  righteousness  and  justice.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
rich  were  considered  apostates  from  the  true  faith.  It  was  during 
the  second  temple  when  the  rich  and  aristocratic  Jews  were  attracted 
by  Greek  institutions  which  the  Syrians  had  introduced,  and  aposta- 
tized, that  the  distinction  between  poor  and  rich  became  especially 
marked.  The  Anavim  who  formed  the  party  known  as  the  CJiasi- 


1.  Hosea  vi,  9;  Isai.  v,  8;  iii,  14,  15;  x,  2;  xi,  4;  xxvi,  6;  xxix,  19;  xxxii, 
7;  xli,  17,  and  especially  Iviii,  7.     Jer.  xx,  13;  xxii,  16.     Ezek.  xvi,  49;  xviii, 
12,  17;  xxii,  29.     Amos  iv,  i;  v,  n,  12;  viii,  4.     Zeph.  iii,  12.     Zach.  xii,  10,  etc. 

2.  That  they  formed  a  party  or  community  may  be  seen  from  the  expres- 
sions :      D'TDPI  Snp    Ps.  cxlix,  I ;     myi     D1-^    llD     Ps.  cxi,  I ;     DntS*  in 
Ps.  cxii,  2. 

3.  See  Renan — History  of  the  Peop.  of  Is.,  Vol.  Ill,  ch.  iv. 

4.  The  Ebionhn  were  the  first  Christians.     See  Renan,  ibid. 

5.  See  Ps.  Ixxii,  2 ;  Ixxiv,  19,  etc.,  where  they  are  called  the  "Lord's  poor." 
Comp.    Ps.   xxxvii,  22,  where   "His   Blessed"    (V313D  )    shall    inherit  the 
earth."     And    verse   25,    where   the    righteous    (  p '  1  V    )    is   never   deserted 
nor  his  seed  reduced  to  beggary.     See  Ps.  Ixxiii,  25,  where  the  poor  man  offers 
his    profession   of    faith :     "Whom    have     I    in    heaven  ?    and   beside    Thee    I 
desire  nothing  upon  earth." 


—  13  — 

dim  (  Q'TCH  a  "pious  ones")  opposed  with  patriotic  zeal  the 
Hellenization  of  their  country,  and  regarded  the  rich  apostate  as 
the  type  of  impiety  and  wickedness. 

When  we  come  to  examine  this  literature,  we  find  numerous 
appellations  given  to  the  poor,  all  of  which  are  descriptive  of  the 
highest  and  noblest  moral  and  religious  attributes.2  The  *  j  y 
and  '  V  2  S  are  no  longer  miserable,  wretched  sufferers,  despond- 
ing, depressed,  humiliated,  as  the  terms  imply.  Though  they  are 
poor  in  worldly  possessions,  they  are  rich  in  divine  favor.  They  will 
inherit  the  earth,  and  be  the  abiding  party  long  after  their  opponents, 
the  rich,  have  been  vanquished  (Ps.  xxxvii). 

The  rich,  on  the  other  hand,  have  become  the  "wicked" 
(  D  *  y  EH  )  •  They  are  the  enemies  of  the  poor,  and  therefore, 
the  Lord's  enemies.  Words  depicting  deceit,  violence,  corruption, 
injustice,  are  employed  to  describe  them,  and  to  ilustrate  their 
actions. 

It  would  argue  that  there  had  been  centuries  of  oppression, 
cruelty,  vice,  and  profligacy  on  the  part  of  the  rich,  that  only  un- 


1.  In  the  Maccabean  age  "PDn  and  sjy   become  interchangeable. 

2.  See   interesting  and    suggestive   synonyms   and   paraphrases  for   poor 
in  Ps,  xxxvii.     (This  Psalm  affords  an  excellent  study  for  poor  and  rich.) 
The  Poor  are  called  "upright"   (   IK*    )   and  "pure"   (  Dfi  )    Ps.  xxxvii,  37). 
"Seekers   of   God"    (    D»r6«  'BhVT      Ps.    Ixix,   33)  ;    "Those   that  know    His 
name"    (  1 »  &    *  y  1  V     ix,    11)  ;    "Those   that    hope   in   Him"    (    mn'    "IP 
xxxvii,  9);  "The  righteous"   (D"P"1V  <xxvii,   16)  ;   "Those  of  upright  ways" 
(    TfH  ntP'    xxxvii,  14)  ;  "His  blessed"   (  V313O    xxxvii,  22)  ;  "His  saints" 
(  1  '  -i  '  D  n    xxxvii,    28);     "Protected    ones"    (    ?pyBS     Ixxxiii,    4);    "The 
Lord's   heritage"    [     TJ  n  ^  n  3       xxviii,  9)  ;   "The  Lord's  poor"    (      *j  '  '  2  y 
ixxii,  2)  ;  "His  flock"   (  TjrPino  *N¥     Ixxiv,  i)  ;  "His  lovers   (cxlv,  20    mm* 
"Lovers  of  His  name"   (  ».»B'  »rnx  Ixix,  37);  "His  beloved"   (^JTT  Ix,  7); 
"His    children"    (  ^  s  :  3    Ixxiii,    15)  ;    "His    anointed"    ^  n  '  I*'  D  Ixxxiv,    9)  ; 
"Those  that  call  on  Him"   (civ,  20    1  "  K  1  p   )  ;  "Those  that  trust  in  Him" 
(   !J3  D'Din    xxxix,    20)  ;    "The    faithful"    (  D'HDK    xxxi,    24). 


,-•14-- 

complimentary  ideas  are  connected  with  them  in  this  literature.1 
The  terms  for  poor,  ^  ,|V3K  ,^y  etc.,  are  nearly  always  found  to 
accompany  their  synonyms  and  paraphrases,  but  the  terms  for  rich, 
on  the  contrary,  are  usually  omitted,  and  only  their  synonyms  or 
paraphrases  used  in  their  place.  To  say  "oppressor,"  "wicked," 
'man  of  deceit/'  sufficiently  indicated  that  reference  was  made  to 
what  were  considered  the  powerful  and  wicked  rich.  This  inferen- 
tial use  of  opprobrious  names  for  rich,  mirrors  the  bitter  enmity 
that  existed  between  the  classes,  and  serves  as  an  illuminative  com- 
mentary on  social  conditions  in  ancient  Israel.  Psalm  Ixxiii  may  be 
cited  as  a  typical  expression  of  Anannstic  sentiment  concerning,  the 
rich.  Their  prosperity  (  D  i  7  E>  )  fills  them  with  pride.  They 
become  fearless,  bold.  "Violence  (  D  C  H  )  covers  them  as  a 
garment. "  "They  are  corrupt,  and  speak  wickedly  concerning  op- 
pression." (On  r$y  which  is  used  here  for  "oppression,"  Rashi 
comments  Q'jVIK  p'tTJ?^  "to  oppress  the  poor  is  meant.")2  They 
speak  irreverently  against  heaven.  Their  pompous,  bloated  appear- 
ance is  alluded  to :  "Their  eyes  stand  out  with  fatness,"  verse  7. 


1.  See  in  particular   Ps.   Ixxiii:     They  are  called  "wicked"    (    D  '  V  V 1 
Ps.  x  2,  Ixxiii,  2;  cix,  16,  etc.     This  is  the  term  par  excellence  for  the  rich 
in    the    "poverty"    literature).     They    are    "robbers"    (        7  T  3        xxxv,    10)  ; 
"unrighteous   and   violent"    (f'Oin  ,i>1JflO  Ixxi,  4)  ;   "Devourers  of  the  Lord's 
people"    (  "O  •  *73«    liii,    5)  ;    "They    "lie    in    wait"    for   the   poor    (x,    g)  ; 
"pursue"   them    (cix,    16)  ;    "draw  the   sword   and  bend  the  bow"  on   them 
(xxxvii.  14)  ;  They  are  "men  of  violence"  (xviii,  49  DDPI  5^N     )  ;  They  are 
guilty  of  "oppression"    (    7]n     x,  7;  Iv,   12;  Ixxii,   14,   etc.).     In  prov.   xxix, 
13.  the  term  D'rm  E'*tf  is  used  in  contradistinction  to  gh  . 

2.  See  Rashi   (    """'en      so-called  from  his  intitials,  Rabbi  Solomon  Isaaki 
of  Troves,  1040-1105)  on  Ps.  Ixxiii,  8. 


'5- 


CHAPTER  II. 


BIBLICAL  CONCEPTION  OE  POVERTY  AND  RICHES. 


i .     POVERTY. 

'Poverty,  according  to  the  earlier  Biblical  view,  is  looked  upon 
Jas  an  affliction,  an  undesirable  condition,  as  the  terms  for  poor, 
etymologically,  imply.  It  is  considered  a  punishment  for  wrong- 
doing", for  sin,  either  on  the  part  of  the  individual  who  suffers  it,  or 
of  society.  In  the  very  first  instance  where  poverty-producing  con- 
ditions are  mentioned,  we  find  man's  transgressions  given  as  the 
cause  thereof.1  There  is  a  distinction  made,  however,  in  the  causes 
of  poverty.  One  is  social  wrong,  civic  injustice,  that  produces  a 
large  army  of  innocent  poor,  those  who  are  poor  through  no  fault  of 
their  own,  but  suffer  poverty  by  reason  of  corrupt  social  institutions ; 
the  other  cause  is  the  poor  man's  individual  sin,  his  vices  and  short- 
comings.. The  former  cause  is,  by  far,  the  more  important,  though 
both  are,  by  their  very  nature,  correlative.  Men  are  made  poor, 
and  kept  so,  by  being  defrauded  of  their  rights,  by  having  their 
property  unjustly  taken  from  them,  by  political  corruption  (Isai. 
v,  8;  Jer.  xxii,  13;  xvii,  n;  Micah,  vi,  TO,  12;  Nahum  in,  I,  etc.). 
Social  wrong,  however,  offends  the  Lord,  who  will  employ  natural 
'agencies  to  effectuate  His  displeasure.  He  will  send  "the  sword 


i.     Gen.  iv,   1 7. 


and  pestilence"  famine  and  all  manner  of  plagues,  as  a  punishment.1 
But  these  afflictions  contribute  to  produce  still  more  poverty.  When 
the  prophets  paint  the  terrible  ravages  of  war  which  social  injustice 
will  bring  on,  they  have  in  mind  the  economic  costliness  thereof. 
War  withdraws  from  the  fruitful  pursuits  of  peace,  the  tillers  of  the 
soil.  The  strength  of  the  land  goes  forth  to  battle.  Then,  there  is 
added  the  positive  loss  due  to  the  destruction  caused  by  the  enemy 
(Jer.  v,  17).  War  produces  cripples,  orphans,  widows.  Thus, 
famine,  pestilence,  war,  which  are  sent  to  punish  society  for  "grind- 
ing the  faces  of  the  poor,"2  for  robbing  and  despoiling  them,  become 
a  further  source  of  suffering  and  poverty  to  those  who  are  already 
the  victims  of  the  cause  that  produces  these  afflictions.  The  punish- 
ment which  lays  low  the  mighty  and  powerful,  falls  also  heavily 
on  the  innocent  poor.  Hence,  civic  wrong  is  directly  and  indirectly 
productive  of  poverty.  Those  who  are  impoverished  through  the 
exploitation  of  the  wicked  rich,  and  suffer,  necessarily,  when  justice 
is  executed  on  the  guilty,  find  in  the  Hebrew  prophets  their  de- 
fenders. It  is  for  them  that  they  hurl  their  denunciations  against 
oppressors  and  corruptionists.  The  poor-laws  in  the  Pentateuch 
are  made,  also,  for  this  class  of  innocent  poor,  the  victims  of  the 
social  cause  of  poverty. 

It  is  in  the  so-called  Ckochmah    or  "wisdom"  literature  of  the 

Bible,  that  we  find  the  fullest  expression  of  individual  responsi- 
bility for  poverty.  It  is  here  that  man's  vices  and  delinquencies 


1.  See  Ezek.  vi,  n;  2.  Sam.  xxi,  i;  Jer.  xi,  22;  xiv,  12;  Joel,  i,  4;  Isai. 
li,  19,  etc.     The  rabbis  held  the  same  belief.     See  Dicta  of  the  Fathers,  v,  II : 
nn  rWJT^jn    pin  njjrtp  D^iy^    n«a  mn    "The  sword  comes  into  the  world 
for  the  delay  of  Justice,  and  for  the  perversion  of  Justice,  etc." 

2.  Isai.   iii,   15. 


are  condemned  as  poverty-producing-  agents.  Idleness,  sloth,1  avar- 
ice, uncharitableness,2  deceit,  pleasure-seeking,  vanity,  gourmandiz- 
ing,  drunkenness>  harlotry,3  are  given  as  causes  of  poverty.  To 
ignorance,  also,  is  attributed  want.  One  who  refuses  "i  D  VD  (in- 
struction, correction)  will  become  poor.  Lack  of  wisdom  makes 
a  man  poor.4  But  we  must  understand  by  "wisdom"  here,  not  so 
much  intellectual  agility,  as  moral  discernment.  In  the  Book  of 
Proverbs  the  penal  nature  of  poverty  is  recognized.  The  righteous 
and  the  wise  shall  escape  it.  It  will  befall  only  the  wicked,  the 
vicious  and  the  foolish.  Personal  vices  are  punished  with  poverty. 
They  are  extravagant  in  an  economic  sense. 

The  request  of  Agur5  that  poverty  become  not  his  portion,  reflects 
the  opinion,  held  throughout  Proverbs  generally,  that  poverty  is  an 
undesirable  condition.  For  the  poor  are  shut  off  from  the  activities 
of  life;  they  are  despised,  run  danger  of  falling  into  sin,  (want  mak- 
ing them  steal,  Prov.  xxx,  9),  and  are  ever  on  the  verge  of  destruc- 
tion. 

Unrighteousness,  then,  is  given  as  the  ultimate  cause  of  poverty, 
Man  transgresses  the  divine  commands,  and  in  consequence  must 
suffer.  According  to  the  Hebrew  conception,  there  is  a  causal  nexus 
between  the  moral  and  the  physical  world.  In  Deut.  xxviii,  it  is 
expressly  threatened  that  the  punishment  for  disobeying  divine  law 
will  consist  in  the  "curse"  of  poverty.  The  soil,  kine,  flocks,  all, 
will  become  sterile,  and  war  will  bring  its  evil  and  destruction.  And 
this  threat  is  constantly  reiterated  by  the  prophets.  This  doctrine, 


1.  Prov.  vi,  10,  ii ;  xx,  4. 

2.  x,   4;    xi,   24. 

3.  xxi,  6;  v,  10;  vi,  26;  xxviii,  19;  xxiii,  21. 

4.  Prov.  xiii,  18.     The  man  without  "wisdom"  in  Prov.  is  a  "fool."     ^  '  D  3 
and  ^  M  N  mean  "fool,"  with  the  subaudition  of  unrighteousness,  ungodliness. 
So    n?D3n    "wisdom"  means  moral  rather  than  intellectual  discernment. 

5.  Prov.   xxx,  8. 


—  iS— 

that  wickedness  is  the  forerunner  of  misfortune,  is  taught  in  the 
Old  Testament  with  regard  to  nations  and  individuals. 

The  Anavistic  opinion  of  poverty,  as  reflected  in  the  Psalins,  is 
quite  in  contrast  to  that  we  have  just  seen.  Poverty  becomes  the 
condition  of  sainthood.  The  poor  are  not  the  "cursed,"  but  the 
"blessed."  (Compare  Matt.  v;  3).  Spiritual  poverty  is  here  re- 
garded as  a  misfortune,  a  sort  of  punishment  that  the  wicked  re- 
ceive ;  but  material  wealth  has  little  or  no  value.  The  Anavim  would 
not  change  their  poverty  for  riches,  for  it  would  have  to  be  done 
at  the  expense  of  the  Lord's  friendship.  The  rich  are  His  enemies. 

2.     RICHES. 

Riches,  the  Bible  considers  a  token  of  divine  favor.  "The 
blessing  of  the  Lord  maketh  rich,"  (Prov.  x,  22)  expresses  the 
Biblical  belief  in  the  divine  source  of  wealth.  The  institutions  of 
tithes,  first-fruits,  thanksgiving  offerings,  would  also  give  evidence 
of  this  belief.1  While  Israel  was  a  pastoral  people,  their  wealth 
consisted  in  flocks  and  kine,  and  when  they  followed  agriculture, 
there  was  added  to  this,  the  produce  of  the  soil,  wheat,  grain,  wine, 
oil,  etc.  If  their  flocks  increased,  if  the  soil  was  fruitful,  riches 
accumulated.  But  such  increase  and  fertility  depended  on  favorable 
conditions  of  nature,  that  is,  on  the  blessings  of  heaven,  and  these 
would  be  given  only  for  obedience  to  the  commands  of  the  Lord. 
(Deut.  xxviii).  Hence  the  blessing  that  made  rich  was  the  reward 
for  righteousness.  To  an  agricultural  and  pastoral  people,  peace 
is,  also,  essential  to  prosperity.  This,  too,  is  promised  as  a  reward 
for  social  morality.  The  millennial  promises  of  the  prophets  are 
based  on  the  universal  reign  of  social  justice  (Isai.  ii,  2-4;  Micah 


i.  Giving  tithes,  first-fruits,  etc.,  Would  be  a  recognition  that  all  things 
come  from  the  Lord,  and  would  be  a  symbolical  rendering  to  Him  (or  His 
priests)  of  His  due. 


iv,  2-4,  where  peaceful  security  and  individual  prosperity  are  the 
reward  of  walking  in  the  paths  of  the  Lord).  When  civic  right- 
eousness prevails,  and  corruptiori ;  and  oppression  have  been  elimi- 
nated from  society,  the  Lord  will  bestow.  His  .blessings,  in  the  form 
of  material  and  spiritual » wealth..*  Social  .-equity .  will  conduce  to  »th6 
general  welfare.  All  will  enjoy  its  fruits.,  ,.,,,,  ^.»-,v  .>rfT 

Wealth,  then,  comes  as  a  natural  result^pj^righteausness.1.  The 
happiness,  .peace,,  comfQtt,  and  ae,cwri^Twh^r, %  JftqUrew,  tter,ms 
for-  rich,  in  their  jcprppjiifleoiary .  s,en<?e  <^i^te.,..,^f  ,pqc}'s  blessings, 
They  .represent  3t$  SX^pl^J^i^f^^  ;He,rshQW£,;tQ  a  jighteou^ 
people  which  builds  its  institutions  on  truth  and  justice,  watches 
over  the  weak,  cares  for  the  unfortunate,  and  jealously  guards  and 
protects  the  rights  of  the  defenceless.  The  Lord  rewards  those  who 
are  careful  to  pay  Him  tithes  and  offerings,  which  go  to  the  priests 
and  levites,  and  those  who  "pay  ttieif  debt  to  the  Lord,  in  giving 
th6'*brphan;  4idtfw  #nd  strattj^r  *the (^lewkigs W  thef  fieki/tetet  A 
pedple  which  in/fiiblical  fa^uagej'  walks  In  the  AvaysJ6 f-the  "Lord; 
will  be .prft'spefotfiTand- foidw  hothmg  of  "povbrtyl^  ^*; 

But  this"  collective  morality  "which  irnds' "favor  in  'the  reyes  -of 
Go^,  and' br1ngsr"His 'WesWngs,  iniplies  ri^hteotis^  conduct  on'  thte 
part  of  'the'1  individual.  I  ^th^  individual  'WoiM"est:ape  poverty-'and 
enjoy  wealth,  he  'must  ^ec8me  "wi^^'^enifAigh'^^^ko^ni^  that  a 
causal  relation  exists  between  Vight  and  prosperous. '  l^he  ''wise" 
man  will  walk  through  life  "with^is  eyes^iri  hfs  Tiead^  (EccVii,"T4)  ; 
he  will  not  be  guilty  of  immorality 'in  any  'form— idleness;  vice, 
debauchery,  fraud,  falsehood,  for  his  '"wisdom"  'consists  in  ''recog- 
nizing that  all  these  are  detestable  in  the'sight  of  tiie  Lofd^anrf  will 


1.  See  Ex.  xxiii,  20,  ff.     Dettt.  xxviii ;  Lev.  xxvi.     Applied  to  individuals, 
tlii!  WtrliWW  re^feateQljr-  ifisiWeanortBfnntftfe  igk.^  Prov.ifOT?rfils6^Jer.  vii, 
5-7;  Isai.  Iviii,  7;  Ps.  >i.  •    , 

2.  Sf  e  note  4,  p    17. 


—  20 — 

be  punished  with  destruction  and  poverty,  whereas  the  virtues  of 
liberality,  industry,  etc.  (Prov.  xi,  25;  xiii,  1 1 ;  iii,  9)  will  be  recom- 
pensed with  increase. 

Civic  righteousness  or  public  justice,  and  individual,  "wise" 
(i.  e.,  God-fearing)  conduct,  are  posited  by  the  ancient  Hebrews,  as 
the  means  of  winning-  divine  favor,  which  will  realize  and  manifest 
itself  through  natural,  wealth-producing  agents. 

We  should  note,  however,  the  distinction  that  is  made  between 
righteous  wealth  and  ill-gotten  riches.  The  latter  is  condemned. 
Its  acquirement  does  not  indicate  heavenly  favor.  There  is  no 
blessing  attached  to  it,  and  it  will  not  abide.1  "He  that  trusteth  in 
riches  acquired  through  fraud,  shall  fail."  (Prov.  xl,  28).  In  Isai. 
v,  7,  8,  the  method  of  getting  rich  unjustly  is  shown.  But  there 
shall  be  no  protection  in  such  riches.  The  Mosaic  laws  against 
usury,  fraud,  deceitful  balances,  oppressive  treatment  of  employes, 
etc.,  were  intended  to  operate  aganst  the  accumulation  of  unright- 
eous wealth. 

But  wealth  per  se,  honorably  gotten,  and  properly  used,  is  not 
condemned  in  the  Bible.  It  is,  on  the  contrary,  considered  a  mark 
of  God's  pleasure.  However,  the  danger  that  attaches  to  it  is 
marked  out.  It  may  lead  to  vanity  and  pride,  and  make  its  possessor 
forgetful  of  God.2  Deut.  warns  the  Israelite  not  to  be  lured  from 
righteous  living  by  wealth,  and  the  Bk.  of  Prov.  has  numerous 
references  to  the  dangers  of  wealth.3  In  the  later,  Anavistic  view, 
riches  are  condemned  because  of  this  danger.  They  are  considered 
only  in  an  unfavorable  light.  The  rich  man  is  wicked,  extravagant, 
vicious,  always  on  the  alert  to  defraud  the  unwary  and  oppress  the 


1.  Prov.  x,  2. 

2.  Prov.  xxx,  9,  "Lest  I  become  over-full  and  deny  Thee." 

3.  Prov.  viii,  n;  x,  15;  xi,  28;  xiii,  7;  xv,  6;  xvi,  8. 


weak  in  order  to  increase  his  wealth.  And  because  of  his  harsh 
and  cruel  treatment  of  the  poor,  wHo  are  considered  God's  children, 
he  becomes  an  enemy  of  the  Lord. 

3-     SOLUTION  OF  THE  PROBLEM  OF  POVERTY. 

The  Biblical  solution  of  the  problem  of  poverty  is  not  found 
in  an  economic  readjustment  of  society,  for  poverty^  according  to 
the  Bible,  is  not  due  to  a  faulty  system  of  distribution,  as  modern 
socialists  maintain,  or,  ultimately,  to  the   niggardliness  of  nature, 
as  other  schools  of  political  economy  hofd,  but  to  society's  or  the 
individual's  moral  delinquencies.    It  is  considered  penal  in  its  nature. 
When  the  cause  of  poverty  is  found  in  unrighteousness,  the  remedy 
suggests   itself.     Let  man,   socially  and   individually,   lead  a   just, 
God-fearing,  righteous,  life  and  there  will  be  no  poverty.     This  is 
the  teaching  of  the  Pentateuch  and  the   Prophets.     The   seeming 
contradiction  between  Deut.  xv,  4,          which   speaks  of  the  time 
when  there  shall  be  no  poor  in  Israel,  promising  the  cessation  of 
poverty  as  a  reward  for  hearkening  unto  the  voice  of  the  Lord,  and 
xv,  n,  which  says  "The  poor  shall  never  cease  out  of  the  land," 
apparently  doubting  the  possibility  of  the  complete  and  final  removal 
of  poverty  from  among;  mankind,  is  reconciled  when  we  consider 
that  the  former  verse  refers  to  Israel  exclusively,  with  whom  pros- 
perity will  be  found  when  the  Lord's  commands  are  strictly  followed, 
whereas,  xv,    n,  makes  reference  to  the  other  nations  who  have 
not  yet  come  under  Yahweh's  laws.     These  two  verses  would  ex- 
press the  belief  that  poverty  will  cease  in  Israel  as  soon  as  God's 
law  becomes  man's  rule  of  conduct,  but  will  not  disappear  from  the 
earth  until  Yahweh  is  recognized  as  the  sovereign  of  the  universe.1 


i.  See  Rashi's  comment :  "How  can  we  reconcile  these  two  verses  ? 
The  law-giver  means  that  when  ye  will  do  the  will  of  God,  the  poor  will 
be  found  among  others,  and  not  among  yon ;  but  when  ye  do  not  the  will 
of  God,  then  ye  will  have  the  poor." 


22 


The  Pentateuch  sees,  then,  in  the  establishment  of  righteous- 
ness the  cure  for  poverty.  And  the  prophets  of  Israel  teach  the 
same  doctrine  (Isai.  i,  16-19;  Iviii,  7,  8;  Hos.  xiv,  5,  etc.).  Their 
cry  is  for  civic  righteousness,  for  justice.  To  injustice  they  attribute 
the  existence  of  the  large  number  of  the  "social"  poor,  those  who  be- 
come impoverished  because  their  rights  are  wrested  from  them. 
This  defenseless  class  is  not  paid  for  its  labor,  and  is  defrauded  of 
justice  in  courts  of  law  through  the  collusion  of  judges  and  the 
powerful.  Bribery,  corruption,  violence,  robbery,  deprive  these  poor 
of  their  rightful  share  in  earth's  bounty.  If,  therefore,  those  in 
power  would  prevent  this  exploitation  of  the-  weak,  if  judges  were 
just,  and  not  bribe-takers,  if  men  were  honest  and  righteous  in  their 
transactions,  the  earth  would  bask  in  the  sunshine  of  God's  favor 
(Isai.  Iviii,  6-14). 

In  close  connection  with  righteousness,  we  find  charity  insisted 
on  as  a  remedy  for  poverty.  Charity  is  an  obligation  on  the  part  of 
the  rich,  and  a  right  of  th(*  poor.  The  admonitions  to  do  charity, 
which  we  find  in  the  Pentateuch,  the  Prophets  and  the  later  writ- 
ings, are  based  on  the  belief  that  the  poor  have  a  right  to  expect  it. 
The  gleanings  of  field,  olive-yard,  vineyard,  etc.,  which  are  given  to 
the  poor  (Lev.  xix,  9,  10;  Dent,  xxiv,  19  ff),  the  orphan,  widow 
and  stranger,  are  viewed  as  their  rightful  property.  To  withhold 
it  from  them,  is  to  rob  them,  to  oppress  them,  and  the  Lord  will 
surely  punish  such  unrighteousness.  So,  withholding  tithes  and 
offerings  which  belong  to  the  priests  and  levites,  and  are  the  only 
means  of  support  of  this  dependent  class,  is  stigmatized  as  robbery. 
It  is  robbing  the  Lord  (Mai.  iii,  8-12),  because  the  priests  and  levites 
are  the  Lord's  servants. 

The  gleanings  of  field  and  vineyard,  the  levitical  assessments,  etc., 
are  enforced  gifts.    It  is  a  form  of  compulsory  charity.     It  is  char- 


acteristic  of  the  Biblical  idea  of  charity  that  it  is  something  com- 
pulsory on  man,  and  not  dependent  on  his  own  inclination.  It  is  a 
debt  man  owes  to  the  Lord,  for,  from  the  Lord  comes  all  he  pos- 
sesses. When  the  poor  cry  for  help,  they  must  be  aided,  else  it 
is  a  sin  against  him  who  closes  his  ear  to  their  request. 

Thus,  charity  becomes,  an  adjuvant  to  justice  as  a  cure   for 
poverty.     Justice1  and  charity  constitute  righteousness   (  H  p  H  ¥  /* 

T     T     : 

and  in  this  the  problem  of  poverty  finds  its  solution. 


i.     Cf.  the  insistence  of  the  importance  of  Justice  in  the  rabbinical  view: 

n  pn^jjn  nonn^y  ,  D'p  n^iyn  onan  \\vbw  hy    "By  three  things 

is  the  world  preserved,  by  Truth,  by  Judgment   (Justice)      and  by  Peace." 
Dicta  of  the  Fathers  I,  18. 


CHAPTER  III. 

n  pr  IT  y ' 

IN  THE  BIBLE  AND  RABBINICAL   LITERATURE. 

The  social  equilibrium  which  is  disturbed  by  the  division  be- 
tween Poor  and  Rich,  must  be  re-established  by  Righteousness. 
(  npl¥  )•  We  have  seen  the1  importance  placed  ori  this  in  the 
Bible.  Its  execution  on  the  part  of  man,  will  establish  Justice  on 
earth  (and,  therefore,  Justice  becomes  one  of  its  sub-meanings),  and 
in  so  doing  it  operates  as  charity  to  those  to  whom  the  establishment 
of  Justice  would  bring  relief,  and  restoration  of  their  rights.  How 
H  p  "1  ¥  comes  to  receive  this  connotation  of  charity  for  which  it 
is  used  in  the  later  books  of  the  Bible,  and  for  which  it 
stands  par  excellence  in  the  rabbinical  literature,  will  be  disclosed 
by  a  study  of  its  use^  and  applications. 

In  Gen.  xv,  6,  Abraham's  belief  in  the  Lord  is  credited  to  him 
as  a  n  p  "I  X  (Targ.  Onkelos  translates  it  ",  3  7  merit),  n  p  "I  ¥ 
here,  receives  the  subaudition  of  something  meritorious.  It  is  used 
to  describe  conduct  which  is  prompted,  voluntarily,  by  a  certain 
spiritual  attitude  towards  God.  The  element  of  voluntariness  should 
be  noted.  Abraham  is  not  compelled  to  believe  in  the  promise  of 
a  numberless  progeny.  But  his  trust  in  God  leads  him  to  believe, 
nnd  this  voluntary  giving  of  belief  is  marked  as  a  H  p  1  ^  . 


T.  From  pIV  (Ar.  Sadaka)  hard,  firm,  straight,  following  a  prescribed 
norm.  In  a  theocratic  sense,  used  of  one  who  walks  in  the  ways  of  God. 
The  noun  has  the  sense  of  Justice  in  Judg.  v,  11;  Ps.  ciii,  6,  etc. 


—  25  — 

Though  charity  in  the  Biblical  view  is  compulsory,  and  not 
altogether  dependent  on  the  inclination  of  the  individual,  yet  he 
that  gives  charity  voluntarily,  and  not  because  the  law  compels  him 
to,  is  the  true  p  •>  1  ^  righteous  man.  Hence,  the  notion  of  some- 
thing voluntarily  given  which  we  find  here  in  j"[  p  "I  V  illustrates 
or  evidences  the  existence  of  a  germinal  idea  of  charity  in  it. 

In  Deut.  vi,  25,  the  observance  on  tfie  part  of  the  Israelites  of 
the  commandments  will  be  a  ,-j  p  -j  ^  *  on  their  part.  Here,  again, 
the  idea  of  something  voluntarily  given  is  connoted.  The  com- 
mandments were  given  to  be  obeyed,  yet  this  obedience  was  volun- 
tary on  the  part  of  the  people  (see  Dept.  xxx,  15,  ff).  In  xxiv,  13, 
the  act  of  returning,  before  sunset,  the  poor  man's  garment  taken 
in  pledge,  is  spoken  of  as  a  H  p  "1  ¥  •  The  implication  of  benevo- 
lence, sympathy,  charity,  is  clearly  evident,  H  p  "1  ¥  stands  forth 
here  as  an  act  of  charity. 

Neh.  ii,  20,  makes  n  p  1  V  synonymous  with  p^p;  (portion). 
It  has  here  the  sense  of  a  "right/7  and  may  imply  the  right  to  charity 
which  is  vested  in  the  poor,  with  the  correlative  obligation  on  the 
part  of  the  rich  to  respect  this  right. 

In  Ps.  xxxvii,  21,  the  p  •»  *[  ¥  (nian  °f  H  p  "1  ¥  ),  is  filled  with 
pity  towards  the  needy,  and  gives  charity.  Ps.  cxii,  3,  9,  says  of  him 
who  gives  to  the  poor,  that  his  n  p  1  ¥  *  snall  abide  forever. 
Ts'dakah  is  here  used  for  the  meritorious  act  of  charity.  In  verse 
3,  distinct  reference  is  made  to  what  a  man  does  with  his  "plenty" 
and  "riches."  Prov.  xxix,  7,  speaks  of  one  who  considers  the  cause 
of  the  poor,  i.  e.,  one  charitably  disposed  towards  them,  as  a  'Tjf. 


1.  The  LXX  has  eleemosyne;  the  V.  "misericordia" ;  Targ.     NJTDT 

2.  The  Targ.  translates  it    iTTTDT  this  merit). 


,-26-, 

There  are  two  instances  in  the  later  books,  where  n  p  "I  X 
stands  directly  for  charity.  Prov.  x,  2,  speaks  of  n  p  T  ¥  1  as 
delivering  from  death,  contrasting  the  word  with  y  &  *[  fil 1  ¥  VN 
(treasures  of  wickedness),  wealth  obtained  by  unfair  dealing  and 
disregard  to  laws  regarding  charity.  In  verse  3,  the  p  1  "[  ¥  1S 
avaricious  man  will  become  in  the  end  impoverished.  The  other 
assured  that  he  shall  not  suffer  because  of  his  benefactions,  but  the 
passage  is  Dan.  iv.  24.  Daniel  recommends  to  King  Nebuchadnez- 
zar to  atone  for  his  sins  by  n  p  1  V  ,  and  for  his  wrongs  'by 
showing"  mercy  to  the  poor.  H  p  *l  ¥  can  mean,  here,  nothing 
else  than  charity. 

From  these  various  uses  of  n  p  T  ¥  >  we  see  now  the  impli- 
cation of  charity  arises,  and  how  it  finally'  becomes  a  synonym  for 
charity. 

From  the  connection  with  other  words  in  which  we  find  npT¥  , 
there  is  offered  further  illustration  of  how  it  evolves  into  charity. 

np*T¥  is  often  found  in  connection  with  words  expressing  the 
idea  of  love,  mercy,  justice.  We  find  it  very  frequently  with 
ft  S  tJJ  C  and  "t  DP!  (Ezek.  xviii,  5;  Jer.  xxii,  16;  Ps.  lxxii,i  ; 

T      : 

Deut.  xxxii,  21)  £  Q  &  ft  means  a  decision  according  to  the  merits 
of  a  case,  regardless  of  who  the  parties-  are.  It  is  the  expression  of 
justice  in  a  given  instance.  Dt.  warns  judges  not  to  warp  thetOS&*E 
in  favor  of  poor  or  rich.  When  the  tD  3  !9  0  fa^8  heavily  on 
the  poor,  let  charity  begin.  ES&'D  is  law>  ancl  Hp^ equity.  Law 
is  general  in  its  application,  equity  applies  to  individual  cases. 

This  coupling  of      H   p   1   ¥      with      £  3  &  ft     would  mean 


'.  All  the  Jewish  commentators  translate  is  "charity."  It  may  be  inter- 
esting to  note  that  the  words :  JTOD  ^Vfi  np"l¥  "Charity  delivered!  from 
death  (Prov.  x,  2),  are  found  inscribed  on  the  poor-boxes  which  hang  at 
the  entrance  of  Jewish  cemeteries. 


27 


that  the  rigor  of  the  law  should,  after  the  ends  of  justice  have  been 
satisfied,  be  followed  by  charitable  assistance.     So  the  connection 
°*    PI  p  T  ¥  with   -|  C  PI  a    (mercy,  kindness,  charity,  — Gen.  xxi, 
23;  2.  Sam.  x,  2;  iii,  8  etc.)  would  show  that  there  was  the  implica- 
tion of  kindness,  mercy,  in  it.     By  close  union,  then,  with  these 
words,  suggestive  of  kindness,  consideration,  charity,          n  p  1  ¥ 
comes  to  be  synonymous  with  them.     Now,  all  these  attributes  are 
found  in  the  just  judge,  in  God.  He  judges  with      PJ   p  "t   ¥      an(^ 
1  D  n     whenever  he  makes  a    B  £  tP  E    .     This  is  His  righteous- 
ness.    Man  becomes  righteous   (a     pH¥     )?  when  he  follows  the 
attributes  of  God.     Man's    n  p  1  X      will,  therefore,  show  itself  in 
charitable  conduct.     This  will  mean  that  he  knows  God  (Jer.  xxii, 
16).     God  stands  also  in  the  relation  of  protector  to  the  "stranger," 
the  "orphan,"  and  the  "widow."     (Ps.  x,   18;  cxlvi,  9  etc.)     He 
pleads  the  cause  of  the  13   ,  the  Din11  ,  and  the  mota 
He  will  punish  those  who  rob  or  defraud  them.     But  those  who 
protect  these  wards  of  the  Lord,1  do  what  is  meritorious  in  the  eyes 
of  the  Lord.     It  is  ascribed  unto  them  as  a     H  p   T   If    (see  Prov. 
xxix,  17,  where  "He  who  hath  pity  on  the  poor  lendeth  to  the  Lord"). 
In  acting  charitably  towards  the  poor,   the   stranger,   orphan   and 
widow,  one  performs  an  act  of   np*TC  f°r  which  the  Lord    "credits" 
him. 

The  institution  of  first-fruits,  tithes,  and  levitical  assessments3, 
throws  further  light  on  the  evolution  of    n   p   1   ^*      into  charity. 


a.     See  note  i,  p.  30. 

1.  See  Ex.  xxii,  21;  Lev.   xix,   10,   Dt.  x,   18;   xxvii,   19;   Isai,  i,   17,  23. 
Jer.  vii,  6,  etc.     The    1J     was  a  protected,  but  dependent  foreigner.     He  was 
liable   to  injustice  and  oppression.     The     "0     finds   in  the  Lord,  protection, 
because  he   is   economically  weak.     See  Robt.    Smith,   Rel.   of  the    Semites, 
p.  25,  and  Kin.  and  Mar.,  pp.  41-43. 

2.  Though  these  are  the  priests'  and  levites'  clue  from  the  Israelite,  yet 
we  find  the  giving  of  them  enjoined  and  emphasized  as  a  sort  of  charity  to 


28 

The  priests  and  levites  who  receive  these  assessments,  are  the  Lord's. 
He  is  their  heritage.  The  righteous  man  will  conscientiously  pay 
his  debt  to  these  ministers  of  the  Lord.  Only  the  wicked  will  rob  the 
Lord,  by  depriving-  His  servants  of  their  rights.  (Mai.  iii,  8-12). 
To  give  these  tithes,  offerings,  etc.,  is  to  express  one's  gratitude  to 
God  for  His  munificence,  from  which  the  tithes,  etc.,  are  taken.  It 
will  be  charity  towards  the  dependent  class  of  priests  and  levites  not 
to  withhold  from  them  their  due,  and  as  the  righteous  man  will  fulfill 
his  duty  in  this  respect,  his  np"l¥  °r  righteousness,  becomes  charity. 

A  religious  significance  of  great  importance  was  attached  to  the 
giving  of  the  tithe  of  Dt.  xiv.  28,  29.  It  had  to  be  solemnly  con- 
fessed (Dt.  xxvi,  12).  A  strong  bond  between  righteous  conduct 
and  charity  was  hence  established. 

So,  leaving  the  corners  of  the  field,  gleanings  of  the  vine  and 
olive,  to  the  poor  and  dependent  classes,  the  stranger,  orphan  and 
widow,  is  enjoined  as  a  religious  duty.  It  is  a  charity  to  the  poor. 
Obedience  to  this  command,  presupposes,  on  the  part  of  him  who 
does  it,  the  recognition  of  the  Lord's  ownership  of  the  earth,  and  that 
those  who  have  possessions  are  but  stewards  of  the  Lord's  wealth. 
And  he  who  treats  his  riches  as  a  gift  of  God,  and  gives  thereof  to 
the  Lord's  poor,  is  a  pH¥  »  a  man  who  practices  np"lX. 

The  great  importance  the  O.  T.  places  on  charity,  may  be  seen 
in  this  derivation  of  it  from  righteousness.  This  evolution  of 

np~i¥  into  charity,  illustrates  a  general  tendency  we  find  in  lan- 
guage to  gather  many  virtues  together  into  one,  which  then  assumes 
the  greatest  importance.  So,  H  p  "T  ¥  which  is  applied  to  acts  and 


them  (see  Dt.  xviii;  xxvi,  12,  13).  The  tithe  of  Dt.  xiv,  28,  29,  is  called 
by  the  later  Jews,  SJJJ  "!6J>yo  .  It  is  a  sort  of  poor-rate.  Its  importance 
may  be  inferred  from  Dt.  xxvi,  12.  (Cf.  Dicta  of  the  Fathers,  v,  n,  where 
the  omission  of  tithe-giving  is  visited  with  drought,  hunger  and  poverty). 


29    ' 

conduct  pleasing  to  God,  comes  to  signify  the  highest  of  them  all- 
charity. 

Charity  becomes  .the  paramount  virtue  to  the  Jewish  mind.  In 
the  apocryphal  books  it  is  looked  upon  as  possessing  great  efficacy. 
It  is  better  than  hoarding  gold  (Tobit,  xii,  9)  because  it  has  the 
power  to  deliver  from  death,  (see  also  Sirach  iii,  3,  4,  14,  15,  30). 

In  the  rabbinical  literature,  n  p  *T  ¥  (charity,)  becomes  the 
most  highly  lauded  virtue,  and  fine  and  subtle  distinctions  are  drawn 
between  various  species  of  it.  Charity  is  made  one  of  the  pillars 
upon  which  the  earth,  that  is  society,  rests  (Dicta,  etc.,  i,  1).  It  is  of 
more  value  than  sacrifices.  It  is  equal  to  the  performance  of  all 
other  religious  duties  (Talmud,  tractate  Succah  49b). 

The  opinion  is  often  expressed  by  the  rabbis,  that  the  poor  exist 
in  the  world  in  order  to  give  righteous  men  an  opportunity  of  lay- 
ing up  "merit"  for  themselves  with  God.  By  works  of  charity  man 
proves  himself  a  true  image  of  God,  whose  attributes  are  love,  kind- 
ness and  mercy  (Tractate  Sotah  Ha)1.  He  who  gives  of  his  sub- 
stance, '  n  p  T  V  to  the  P°°r>  will  be  blessed.  For,  this  keeps  the 
poor  from  reviling  their  maker.  The  giving  of  H  p  "I  If  is> 
therefore,  a  highly  religious  act,  because  it  reconciles  men  to  God,  it 
helps  to  keep  them  righteous. 

PI  p  T  ¥  is  the  "salt"  of  riches.  If  the  rich  do  not  give 
np""l¥  to.  the  poor,  their  wealth  will  not  abide  with  them.  It  will 
decay  in  their  hands,  (cf.  Dicta,  etc.,  iii,  17—  igfj^  ytQ  nnjPJJD 

"Tithes  are  a  fence  to  riches").     The  blessing  of  continued 

riches,  and  of  a  prosperous,  wise  and  numerous  progeny  is  promised 
to  him  who  gives    np*"l¥,  as  a  reward  for  his  righteous  conduct. 


i.  The  rabbinical  inculcation  of  the  virtue  of  charity  because  it  makes 
man  an  image  of  God,  is  sought  to  be  strengthened  by  the  citation  of  Gen.  iii, 
20.  and  Dent,  xxxiv,  6.  The  pentateuch,  the  rabbis  say,  begins  and  ends 
with  an  act  of  charity,  clothing  and  burying. 


9     *  *       *   •  •     Id 

Thus,  the  subauditions  of  righteousness  and  charity  which  we 
found  H  p  1  ¥  ^0  have  in  the  O.  T.,  are  brought  into  closer  union. 

Hpn¥  is,  pre-eminently,  the  righteous  act.  The  miser  becomes, 
in  the  Talmud,  an  idolater. 

As  a  practical  result  of  the  rabbinical  doctrine  concerning  the 
religious  importance  of  H  p  "T  ¥  >  Jewish  synagogues,  even  the 
humblest  places  of  worship,  have  "  n  p  "T  ¥  ~  boxes"  near  their  en- 
trance, to  remind  the  worshipper  of  his  religious  duty  to  givenpllf, 
else  all  his  piety  has  but  little  meaning. 

But  that  H  p  T  X  maY  not  lose  its  character  of  being  an  act 
of  righteousness,  and  become,  by  reason  of  the  poor  depending  on 
it,  and  doing  nothing  to  alleviate  their  condition,  something  un- 
righteous in  its  practical  working,  the  rabbis  teach  that  the  noblest 
of  all  H  p  1  ¥  >  is  to  nelp  the  poor  help  themselves  (Tractate, 
Sabbath  63a). 

Charity  is  divided  in  the  literature  of  the  rabbis,  into  alms,  for 
which  n  p  1  ¥  is  generally  used,  and  "good  works,"  for  which 
we  find  the  term  ten  fVITDj  (the  rendering  of  a  benevolent 
act).  G'miluth  chesed  is  of  wider  application  than  ts'dakah.  The 
former,  it  is  taught,  may  be  practiced  by  personal  services,  by  advice, 
sympathy,  encouragement,  etc.,  whereas  the  latter  only  by  means  of 
money.  Ts'dakah  is  a  duty  towards  the  poor  only,  but  g'miluth 
chesed  may  be  done  to  the  rich  as  well.  One  can  give  ts'dakah  only 
to  the  living,  but  can  render  g'miluth  chesed  to  the  dead,  that  is,  by 
taking  care  of  their  decent  burial.  (Tractate  Succah  49b). 

Since  g'miluth  chesed  is  the  generic  term  for  benevolence  of  any 
kind,  prompted  by  the  deepest  and  truest  spirituality  in  man  (the 
1  D  n  '  applied  to  God  in  the  O.  T.,  being,  according  to  Jewish 


i.  In  the  O.  T.  we  find  IDfl  used  for  the  kindness,  benevolence,  etc., 
which  man  shows  to  his  fellow-man  in  Genxxi,  23;  2  Sam.  x,  iii,  8;  ix,  I,  7; 
Ruth  ii,  2o,  etc.  Observe  that  kind  in  English  really  means  "kinned."  A  kind 


theology,  the  chief  divine  attribute)  and  ts'dakah  (as  alms),  but  one 
of  its  species,  the  frequent  interchange  of  the  latter  for  the  former 
which  we  find  in  this  literature,  being  used,  often,  as  identical  with 
it,  evidences  the  fact  that  the  n  p  "1  ¥  °^  the  O.  T.  (the  general 
Old  Testament  term  for  righteousness)  has  had  all  its  attributes 
concentrated  into  one,  and  has  become  charity.8 


person  is  one  who  acknowledges  his  kinship  with  his  fellows,  and  because 
of  this  kinship  recognizes  that  he  owes  them  love.  The  practice  of  chesed 
and  ts  'dakah  is  inculcated  by  the  rabbis,  because  of  the  brotherhood  that 
exists  between  the  "children  of  one  father,"  tha  is,  God  (cf.  Mai.  ii,  10). 
The  ches^d  of  God,  spoken  of  in  the  O.  T.  is,  according  to  Jewish  theology, 
granted  gratuitously  to  man.  "We  are  in  debt  to  God,  but  He  owes  us  nothing." 

2.  The  rabbis  exercised  their  mental  subtlety  in  classifying  the  givers  of 
ts  'dakah.  See  Maimonides  (  WW  irons  "Poor-gifts,"  Ch.  vii).  He 
arranges  them  thus:  (i)  He  who  helps  the  poor  to  sustain  himself  by 
giving  a  loan  or  taking  him  into  business  with  him;  (2)  He  who  gives  to 
the  poor  without  knowing  to  whom  he  gives,  while  the  recipient  is  also  igno- 
rant of  the  giver;  (3)  He  who  gives  secretly,  knowing  the  recipient,  but  the 
latter  remaining  ignorant  as  to  his  benefactor's  name ;  (4)  He  who  gives,  not 
knowing  the  recipient,  but  the  recipient  knowing  from  whom  he  obtains 
relief;  (5)  He  who  gives  (both  knowing)  before  he  is  asked;  (6)  He  who 
gives  after  he  is  asked;  (7)  He  who  gives  inadequately,  but  with  a  good 
grace ;  (8)  He  who  gives  with  a  bad  grace.  In  Aboth  the  n  p  1  V  "  J  n  1  3 
(givers  of  charity)  are  thus  classed:  He  who  desires  to  give,  but  does  not 
wish  others  to  give,  is  evilly  disposed  towards  others  (since  almsgiving 
brings  blessing  to  the  giver).  He  who  desires  that  others  should  give,  but 
will  not  give  himself,  his  eye  is  evil  against  himself.  He  who  gives  and 
wishes  others  to  give,  is  a  saint  (  TDH  ).  He  who  will  not  give,  and  does 
not  wish  others  to  give  is  a  wicked  man  (  Jjjjn  ).  (Dicta  of  the  Fathers 
v,  16.)  Owing  to  these  rabbinical  doctrines,  the  "ts  'dakah-box"  was  always 
in  evidence,  on  all  occasions  of  life,  joyous  or  sad,  and  the  maxim  "Charity 
will  never  make  a  man  poor,  but  the  giving  thereof  bring  him  much  blessing," 
was  given  practical  effect. 


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